The Relationship between Buying and Selling Coins and Foolish Transactions from the Perspective of Imami Fiqh

Document Type : Original Article

Author

Department of Fiqh and Private Law, Shahid Motahari University, Tehran, Iran.

Abstract

A foolish transaction is a transaction made by a legally competent person but regarded by custom as lacking economic proportionality between the countervalues and lacking a rational purpose. It is therefore not a transaction ordinarily undertaken by rational people. The notion of a foolish transaction, distinct from a transaction by a legally incompetent person, is a relatively recent issue in fiqh and law and is disputed with respect to validity. Coins, as a new form of digital asset, have become important in global economic exchange but raise questions concerning their fiqhi and legal nature. One objection is that coin transactions are foolish and therefore void. This article, using a descriptive-analytical method, clarifies the concept of foolish transactions, distinguishes it from transactions by incompetent persons, and evaluates whether coin transactions fall under that category. The findings show that foolishness in a transaction is relative, that a personal rational purpose may remove the transaction from this category, and that the main criteria for foolishness - absence of property status, rational benefit, ownership, deliverability, or determinacy - are not established in coin transactions.

Keywords

Main Subjects

References

Reference

The Holy Qurʾān.
Ibn al-Athīr al-Jazarī, Mubārak b. Muḥammad. (1367 SH [1988/1989 CE]). Al-Nihāya fī gharīb al-ḥadīth wa-l-athar [The ultimate reference on unusual terms in ḥadīth and tradition]. Beirut: al-Maktaba al-ʿIlmiyya.
Ibn Idrīs, Muḥammad b. Aḥmad. (1429 AH [2008/2009 CE]). Mawsūʿat Ibn Idrīs al-Ḥillī [The encyclopedia of Ibn Idrīs al-Ḥillī]. Qom: Dalīl-I Mā.
Ibn Rifʿa, Aḥmad b. Muḥammad. (2009). Kifāyat al-nabīh fī sharḥ al-Tanbīh [The sufficiency of the discerning scholar in commentary on al-Tanbīh]. N.p.: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyya.
Ibn Qudāma, ʿAbd Allāh b. Aḥmad. (1421 AH [2000/2001 CE]). Al-Kāfī fī fiqh al-Imām Aḥmad b. Ḥanbal [The sufficient book in the jurisprudence of Imām Aḥmad b. Ḥanbal]. Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyya.
Ibn Manẓūr, Muḥammad b. Mukarram. (1414 AH [1993/1994 CE]). Lisān al-ʿArab [The tongue of the Arabs]. Beirut: Dār al-Fikr li-l-Ṭibāʿa wa-l-Nashr wa-l-Tawzīʿ and Dār Ṣādir.
Ardabīlī, Aḥmad b. Muḥammad. (n.d.). Majmaʿ al-fāʾida wa-l-burhān fī sharḥ Irshād al-adhhān [The compendium of benefit and proof in commentary on Irshād al-adhhān]. Qom: Muʾassasat al-Nashr al-Islāmī.
Imāmī, Sayyid Ḥasan. (1394 SH [2015/2016 CE]). Ḥuqūq-I madanī [Civil law]. Tehran: Intishārāt-I Islāmiyya.
Anṣārī, Murtaḍā. (n.d.). Kitāb al-makāsib [The book of transactions]. N.p.: Turāth al-Shaykh al-Aʿẓam.
Baḥrānī, Yūsuf. (n.d.). al-Ḥadāʾiq al-nāḍira fī aḥkām al-ʿitra al-ṭāhira [The radiant gardens concerning the rulings of the pure household]. Qom: Muʾassasat al-Nashr al-Islāmī.
Pūrṣidqī, Riḍā, Fāʾizī, Muḥammad, & Ādhariyān, Sayyid Ṣādiq. (1401 SH [2022/2023 CE]). A jurisprudential analysis of the gharar-based nature of Bitcoin transactions. Fiqh wa Tārīkh-I Tamaddun [Jurisprudence and the History of Civilization], 8(3).
Jaʿfarī Langarūdī, Muḥammad Jaʿfar. (1378 SH [1999/2000 CE]). Mabsūṭ dar terminuluzhī-yi ḥuqūq [An extensive work on legal terminology]. Tehran: Ganj-I Dānish.
Jaʿfarī Langarūdī, Muḥammad Jaʿfar. (1380 SH [2001/2002 CE]). Ḥuqūq-I amwāl [Property law]. Tehran: Ganj-I Dānish.
Jaʿfarī Langarūdī, Muḥammad Jaʿfar. (1400 SH [2021/2022 CE]). Terminuluzhī-yi ḥuqūq [Legal terminology]. Tehran: Ganj-I Dānish.
Jawādī Āmulī, ʿAbd Allāh. (1391 SH, 2 Khordād [23 May 2012]). Taqrīrāt-I dars-I khārij-I fiqh [Advanced jurisprudence lecture notes].
Jawādī Āmulī, ʿAbd Allāh. (1393 SH, 7 Dey [28 December 2014]). Taqrīrāt-I dars-I khārij-I fiqh [Advanced jurisprudence lecture notes].
Jawādī Āmulī, ʿAbd Allāh. (1397 SH, 1 Dey [22 December 2018]). Taqrīrāt-I dars-I khārij-I fiqh [Advanced jurisprudence lecture notes].
Judmayer, Aljosha, Stifter, Nicholas, Krombholz, Katharina, & Weippl, Edgar. (1399 SH [2020/2021 CE]). Blockchain: Muʿarrifī-yi Bitcoin, ramz-arz-hā wa makānīzm-I tawāfuq-I bih wujūd āmadan-I ān-hā [Blockchain: Introducing Bitcoin, cryptocurrencies, and the consensus mechanism by which they arise] (Mudīrī & ʿAẓīmzādagān, Trans.). Tehran: Pushtībān.
Ḥājī Malāmīrzāʾī, Ḥāmid. (1399 SH [2020/2021 CE]). Blockchain [Blockchain]. Tehran: Supreme National Defense University and Strategic Research Institute.
Ḥāʾirī, ʿAbd al-Karīm. (1391 SH [2012/2013 CE]). Istiftāʾāt [Legal inquiries]. Qom: Zāʾir.
Ḥabībiyān Naqībī, Majīd, Asadiyān Lālīmī, Murtaḍā, & Zaḥmatkash, Muḥammad ʿAlī. (1399 SH [2020/2021 CE]). An examination of the challenge of gharar in cryptocurrency transactions: The case of Bitcoin. In International Conference on Fiqh, Law, and Religious Research, (2).
Ḥusaynī ʿĀmilī, Muḥammad Jawād. (n.d.). Miftāḥ al-karāma fī sharḥ Qawāʿid al-ʿallāma [The key to nobility in commentary on al-ʿAllāma’s Qawāʿid]. Qom: Muʾassasat al-Nashr al-Islāmī.
Ḥusaynī Marāghī, Sayyid Mīr ʿAbd al-Fattāḥ. (1417 AH [1996/1997 CE]). Al-ʿAnāwīn al-fiqhiyya [Jurisprudential headings]. Qom: Muʾassasat al-Nashr al-Islāmī.
Ḥillī, Jaʿfar b. al-Ḥasan, known as al-Muḥaqqiq al-Ḥillī. (1409 AH [1988/1989 CE]). Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām fī masāʾil al-ḥalāl wa-l-ḥarām [The laws of Islam concerning lawful and unlawful matters]. Tehran: Istiqlāl.
Ḥillī, Ḥasan b. Yūsuf. (1412 AH [1991/1992 CE]). Muntahā al-maṭlab fī taḥqīq al-madhhab [The ultimate objective in verifying the school]. Mashhad: Majmaʿ al-Buḥūth al-Islāmiyya.
Ḥillī, Ḥasan b. Yūsuf. (1414 AH [1993/1994 CE]). Tadhkirat al-fuqahāʾ [The reminder of the jurists]. Qom: Muʾassasat Āl al-Bayt ʿalayhim al-salām li-Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth.
Ḥillī, Ḥusayn b. ʿAlī. (1432 AH [2010/2011 CE]). Buḥūth fiqhiyya min muḥāḍarāt Āyat Allāh al-ʿUẓmā al-Shaykh Ḥusayn al-Ḥillī [Jurisprudential studies from the lectures of Grand Āyat Allāh Shaykh Ḥusayn al-Ḥillī]. Beirut: Dār al-Zahrāʾ.
Ḥillī, Muḥammad b. Ḥasan. (1387 SH [2008/2009 CE]). Īḍāḥ al-fawāʾid fī sharḥ mushkilāt al-qawāʿid [Clarification of the benefits in commentary on the difficulties of the legal principles]. Qom: Ismāʿīliyān.
Khūʾī, Sayyid Muḥammad Taqī. (1398 SH [2019/2020 CE]). Al-Shurūṭ aw al-iltizāmāt al-tabaʿiyya fī al-ʿuqūd [Conditions or ancillary obligations in contracts]. Beirut: Dār al-Muʾarrikh al-ʿArabī.
Rūḥānī, Muḥammad Ṣādiq. (1414 AH [1993/1994 CE]). Fiqh al-masāʾil al-mustaḥdatha [Jurisprudence of newly arising issues]. Qom: Dār al-Kitāb.
Subḥānī Tabrīzī, Jaʿfar. (1396 SH, 25 Bahman [14 February 2018]). Taqrīrāt-I dars-I khārij-I fiqh [Advanced jurisprudence lecture notes]. Retrieved from https://www.eshia.ir
Saʿādat Muṣṭafawī, Sayyid Muṣṭafā, & Muṭīʿī, Muḥammad Jawād. (1403 SH [2024/2025 CE]). The status of the prodigal act in Imāmī jurisprudence: The theory of relativity. Pazhūhishnāma-yi Fiqh-I Ijtimāʿī [Journal of Social Jurisprudence], 12(24).
Sulṭānīfard, Jawād, & Muḥammadī, Aḥmad. (1403 SH [2024/2025 CE]). A new inquiry into the conceptual scope of the rule of negating gharar and the assessment of its application to cryptocurrency transactions from the perspective of Imāmī jurisprudence. Pazhūhishnāma-yi Ḥuqūq-I Islāmī [Journal of Islamic Law], 25(4).
Sulṭānīfard, Jawād, Yūsufī, Aḥmad ʿAlī, & Muḥammadī, Aḥmad. (1404 SH [2025/2026 CE]). A semantic reexamination of property from the perspective of Imāmī jurisprudence. Fiqh wa Uṣūl [Jurisprudence and Principles], 57(141).
Samʿānī, Manṣūr b. Muḥammad. (1418 AH [1997/1998 CE]). Qawāṭiʿ al-adilla fī al-uṣūl [Decisive proofs in legal theory]. Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyya.
Shabzindadār, Muḥammad Mahdī. (1396 SH, 5 Āzar [26 November 2017]). Taqrīrāt-I dars-I khārij-I uṣūl-I fiqh [Advanced lectures in legal theory]. Retrieved from https://www.eshia.ir
Shubayrī Zanjānī, Mūsā. (1380 SH [2001/2002 CE]). Kitāb-I nikāḥ [The book of marriage]. Qom: Muʾassasa-yi Pazhūhishī-yi Rāy Pardāz.
Al-Shahīd al-Awwal, Muḥammad b. Makkī. (n.d.). al-Lumʿa al-Dimashqiyya [The Damascene gleam]. N.p.: Dār al-Fikr.
Al-Shahīd al-Thānī, Zayn al-Dīn b. ʿAlī. (1398 SH [2019/2020 CE]). Al-Rawḍa al-bahiyya fī sharḥ al-Lumʿa al-Dimashqiyya [The splendid garden in commentary on al-Lumʿa al-Dimashqiyya]. N.p.: n.p.
Shahīdī, Muḥammad Taqī. (1397 SH, 3 Bahman [23 January 2019]). Taqrīrāt-I dars-I khārij-I fiqh [Advanced jurisprudence lecture notes]. Retrieved from https://www.eshia.ir
Ṣafāʾī, Sayyid Ḥusayn, & Qāsimzāda, Murtaḍā. (1381 SH [2002/2003 CE]). Ḥuqūq-I madanī: Ashkhāṣ wa maḥjūrīn [Civil law: Persons and legally incapacitated persons]. Tehran: Organization for Researching and Composing University Textbooks in the Humanities.
Ṭabāṭabāʾī Burūjirdī, Sayyid Ḥusayn. (1394 SH [2015/2016 CE]). Al-Rasāʾil al-fiqhiyya [Jurisprudential treatises]. Qom: Muʾassasat Āyat Allāh al-ʿUẓmā al-Burūjirdī.
Ṭabāṭabāʾī Ḥakīm, Sayyid Muḥsin. (n.d.). Nahj al-fiqāha [The path of jurisprudence]. Qom: 22 Bahman.
Ṭurayḥī, Fakhr al-Dīn b. Muḥammad. (1375 SH [1996/1997 CE]). Majmaʿ al-baḥrayn wa-maṭlaʿ al-nayyirayn [The confluence of the two seas and the rising point of the two luminaries]. Tehran: Murtaḍawī.
Ṭūsī, Muḥammad b. Ḥasan. (1387 SH [2008/2009 CE]). Al-Mabsūṭ fī fiqh al-Imāmiyya [The extensive work on Imāmī jurisprudence]. Tehran: al-Maktaba al-Murtaḍawiyya.
ʿAbbāsī Khurāsānī, Hādī. (1399 SH, 27 Isfand [18 March 2021]). Taqrīrāt-I dars-I khārij-I fiqh [Advanced jurisprudence lecture notes]. Retrieved from https://www.eshia.ir
ʿAlīdūst, Abū al-Qāsim. (1399 SH, 8 Mihr [30 September 2020]). Taqrīrāt-I dars-I khārij-I uṣūl-I fiqh [Advanced lectures in legal theory].
ʿAlīdūst, Abū al-Qāsim. (1397 SH, 10 Āzar [1 December 2018]). Taqrīrāt-I dars-I khārij-I fiqh [Advanced jurisprudence lecture notes].
Gharawī Iṣfahānī, Muḥammad Ḥusayn. (1419 AH [1998/1999 CE]). Ḥāshiyat Kitāb al-makāsib [Gloss on Kitāb al-makāsib]. N.p.: al-Muḥaqqiq.
Gharawī Nāʾīnī, Muḥammad Ḥusayn. (n.d.). Munyat al-ṭālib fī ḥāshiyat al-Makāsib [The seeker’s desire: A gloss on al-Makāsib]. N.p.: al-Maktaba al-Muḥammadiyya.
Farāhīdī, Khalīl b. Aḥmad. (1409 AH [1988/1989 CE]). Kitāb al-ʿAyn [The book of ʿAyn]. Qom: Hijrat.
Faḍlī, Ḥasan, Chamandār, Mahdī, & Zomorrodī, Hādī. (1398 SH [2019/2020 CE]). Blockchain wa ramz-arz-hā [Blockchain and cryptocurrencies]. Tehran: Nāqūs.
Fayyūmī, Aḥmad b. Muḥammad. (1414 AH [1993/1994 CE]). Al-Miṣbāḥ al-munīr fī gharīb al-sharḥ al-kabīr [The illuminating lamp on unusual terms in the great commentary]. Qom: Muʾassasat Dār al-Hijra.
Qummī, Abū al-Qāsim. (1399 SH [2020/2021 CE]). Jāmiʿ al-shatāt [The comprehensive collection of dispersed matters]. Qom: Fiqh al-Thaqalayn.
Kātūziyān, Nāṣir. (1394 SH [2015/2016 CE]). Qawāʿid-I ʿumūmī-yi qarārdād-hā [General rules of contracts]. Tehran: Shirkat-I Sahāmī-yi Intishār.
Kātūziyān, Nāṣir. (1400 SH [2021/2022 CE]). Amwāl wa mālikiyyat [Property and ownership]. Tehran: Mīzān.
Gurjī, Abū al-Qāsim. (1385 SH [2006/2007 CE]). Maqālāt-I ḥuqūqī [Legal essays]. Tehran: University of Tehran.
Muḥibbīpūr, Narjis Khātūn, Zāriʿ, Mahdī, Ramaḍānī, Muḥammad, & Khusrawīnīyā, Bābak. (1401 SH [2022/2023 CE]). Digital currencies from the perspective of jurisprudence, with emphasis on mining, transactions, and legitimacy. Jāmiʿa-shināsī-yi Siyāsī-yi Īrān [Political Sociology of Iran], 10(5).
Muḥammadī, Aḥmad, Sulṭānīfard, Jawād, Ranjbar, Ḥusayn, & Pahlavānī, Muḥammad Ismāʿīl. (1401 SH [2022/2023 CE]). Assessing the conformity of cryptocurrency mining with juʿāla. Fiqh, 29(111).
Mudarrisī, Muḥammad Riḍā. (1392 SH [2013/2014 CE]). Maqālāt-I fiqhī: Ujrat bar wājibāt [Jurisprudential essays: Remuneration for obligatory acts]. Qom: Dār al-Tafsīr.
Madanī Tabrīzī, Yūsuf. (1433 AH [2011/2012 CE]). Al-Fawāʾid al-Qummiyya fī al-Qurʾān wa-l-duʿāʾ wa-l-dhikr wa-baʿḍ al-masāʾil al-mutafarriqa [Qom benefits concerning the Qurʾān, supplication, remembrance, and some miscellaneous issues]. Qom: Office of Sayyid Yūsuf Madanī Tabrīzī.
Marwī, Jawād. (1401 SH [2022/2023 CE]). Fiqh-I ramz-arz-hā [The jurisprudence of cryptocurrencies]. Qom: Seminary Publications Institute.
Muṭahharī, Murtaḍā. (n.d.). Naẓarī ba niẓām-I iqtiṣādī-yi Islām [A look at the Islamic economic system]. Tehran: Ṣadrā.
Makārim Shīrāzī, Nāṣir. (1385 SH [2006/2007 CE]). Barrasī-yi ṭuruq-I firār az ribā [An examination of methods of avoiding usury]. Qom: Madrasa-yi al-Imām ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib.
Makārim Shīrāzī, Nāṣir, et al. (1424 AH [2003/2004 CE]). Kitāb al-nikāḥ [The book of marriage]. Qom: Madrasa-yi al-Imām ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib.
Makārim Shīrāzī, Nāṣir. (1372 SH, 22 Tīr [13 July 1993]). Taqrīrāt-I dars-I khārij-I fiqh [Advanced jurisprudence lecture notes]. Retrieved from https://www.eshia.ir
Makārim Shīrāzī, Nāṣir, & ʿAliyān-Nizhādī, Abū al-Qāsim. (1383 SH [2004/2005 CE]). Ḥīla-hā-yi sharʿī wa chāra-jūʾī-hā-yi ṣaḥīḥ [Legal stratagems and proper remedies]. Qom: Madrasa-yi al-Imām ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib.
Muntaẓirī, Ḥusayn ʿAlī. (1415 AH [1994/1995 CE]). Dirāsāt fī al-makāsib al-muḥarrama [Studies on forbidden transactions]. Qom: Tafakkur.
Moore, Warren. (1401 SH [2022/2023 CE]). Arz-I dījītāl barā-yi mubtadiyān [Cryptocurrency for beginners] (Rūḥānī, Trans.). Mashhad: Dīdabān-I Qalam-I Fartāk.
Mūsawī Bujnūrdī, Sayyid Ḥasan. (1377 SH [1998/1999 CE]). Al-Qawāʿid al-fiqhiyya [Jurisprudential maxims]. Qom: al-Hādī.
Mūsawī Khalkhālī, Muḥammad Mahdī. (1385 SH [2006/2007 CE]). Fiqh al-shīʿa: al-Ijāra [Shiʿi jurisprudence: Lease and hire]. Tehran: Markaz-I Farhangī-Intishārātī-yi Munīr.
Mūsawī Khomeinī, Sayyid Rūḥ Allāh. (n.d.). al-Makāsib al-muḥarrama [Forbidden transactions]. Qom: Ismāʿīliyān.
Mūsawī Khūʾī, Sayyid Abū al-Qāsim. (1368 SH [1989/1990 CE]). Miṣbāḥ al-fiqāha [The lamp of jurisprudence] (Muḥammad ʿAlī Tawḥīdī, Reporter). N.p.: n.p.
Mūsawī Khūʾī, Sayyid Abū al-Qāsim. (1422 AH [2001/2002 CE]). Tawḍīḥ al-masāʾil [Manual of practical rulings]. Qom: Muʾassasat Iḥyāʾ Āthār al-Imām al-Khūʾī.
Mūsawī Khūʾī, Sayyid Abū al-Qāsim. (1429 AH [2008/2009 CE]). Muḥāḍarāt fī al-fiqh al-Jaʿfarī [Lectures in Jaʿfarī jurisprudence]. Qom: Encyclopedia Institute of Islamic Jurisprudence.
Mīlānī, Muḥammad Hādī. (n.d.). Muḥāḍarāt fī fiqh al-Imāmiyya: Kitāb al-ṣalāt [Lectures in Imāmī jurisprudence: The book of prayer]. Mashhad: Ferdowsi University.
Najafī, Muḥammad Ḥasan. (1362 SH [1983/1984 CE]). Jawāhir al-kalām fī sharḥ Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām [Jewels of discourse in commentary on Sharāʾiʿ al-Islām]. Beirut: Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī.
Nūr Mufīdī, Sayyid Mujtabā. (1402 SH [2023/2024 CE]). Taqrīrāt-I dars-I khārij-I fiqh [Advanced jurisprudence lecture notes]. Website of the Office of Āyat Allāh Sayyid Mujtabā Nūr Mufīdī. Retrieved from https://www.m-noormofidi.com
Hāshimī Shāhrūdī, Maḥmūd. (1395 SH [2016/2017 CE]). Farhang-I fiqh muṭābiq-I madhhab-I Ahl al-Bayt ʿalayhim al-salām [Dictionary of jurisprudence according to the school of the Ahl al-Bayt]. Qom: Encyclopedia Institute of Islamic Jurisprudence according to the School of the Ahl al-Bayt.
Hāshimī Shāhrūdī, Maḥmūd. (1437 AH [2015/2016 CE]). Istiftāʾāt [Legal inquiries]. N.p.: Foundation of Jurisprudence and Teachings of the Ahl al-Bayt.
Waḥīd Khurāsānī, Ḥusayn. (1429 AH [2008/2009 CE]). Al-ʿIqd al-naḍīd [The well-arranged necklace] (Muḥammad Riḍā Anṣārī Qummī, Reporter). Qom: Dār al-Tafsīr.
Yazdī, Sayyid Muḥammad Kāẓim. (1376 SH [1997/1998 CE]). Suʾāl wa javāb [Questions and answers]. Tehran: Markaz-I Nashr-I ʿUlūm-I Islāmī.
Yūsufī, Aḥmad ʿAlī. (1377 SH [1998/1999 CE]). Māhiyyat-I pūl wa rāhburd-hā-yi fiqhī wa iqtiṣādī-yi ān [The nature of money and its jurisprudential and economic strategies]. Tehran: Research Institute for Islamic Culture and Thought.
ArzDigital. (1403 SH [2024/2025 CE]). Pāygāh-I khabarī, taḥlīlī wa āmūzishī-yi arz-hā-yi dījītāl [News, analytical, and educational platform for cryptocurrencies]. Retrieved from https://www.arzdigital.com
Securities and Exchange Organization of Iran. (1403 SH [2024/2025 CE]). Pūrtāl-I rasmī-yi Sāzmān-I Būrs wa Awrāq-I Bahādār-I Īrān [Official portal of the Securities and Exchange Organization of Iran]. Retrieved from https://www.seo.ir
Gold, Coin, and Currency Information Network. (1403 SH [2024/2025 CE]). Nirkh-hā-yi laḥẓaʾī wa akhbār-I bāzār-I sarmāya [Real-time rates and capital-market news]. Retrieved from https://www.tgju.org
Islamic Parliament Research Center. (1403 SH [2024/2025 CE]). Sāmāna-yi qavānīn wa muqarrarāt-I Jumhūrī-yi Islāmī-yi Īrān [Laws and regulations database of the Islamic Republic of Iran]. Retrieved from https://rc.majlis.ir
Bitbo. (2025). Bitcoin Real-Time Charts & Network Statistics. Available at: https://charts.bitbo.io
Cryptoslav, I. (2023). What is Tether? The company behind USDT. CoinMarketCap. https://coinmarketcap.com/academy/article/what-is-tether
Howarth, J. (2025, October 15). How many people use cryptocurrency? (2024). Exploding Topics. https://explodingtopics.com/blog/cryptocurrency-stats
Kemmerer, D. (2025, June 10). How many people own crypto in the world? – June 2025 data. CoinLedger. https://coinledger.io/research/how-many-people-own-crypto-in-the-world
Nzokem, A., & Maposa, D. (2024). Bitcoin versus S&P 500 index: Return and risk analysis. Risks, 29(3), Article 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/risks29030044
Singh, D. (2025, March 4). What is a Centralized Crypto Exchange? A Complete Guide. Debut Infotech. https://www.debutinfotech.com
Studies of Islamic Jurisprudence and Basis of Law
Volume 19, Issue 52 - Serial Number 52
January 2025
Pages 205-240

Files

Share

How to cite

Statistics